Theorist: Fritz Heider and Theodore Newcomb
Date: 1946
Primary Article: Heider, F. (1946). Attitudes and cognitive organization. Journal of Psychology, 21, 107-112.
The Balance theory suggests that we want to have balance in our lives.
When two attitudes collide we must strive to strike a balance between the two attitudes. The balance varies depending on the intensity we feel about each attitude and our pre-disposed positions concerning the attitude. We either have a favourable, neutral or unfavorable opinion concerning ideas.
Balance theory proposes that there are three ways in which a person can feel balance:
First, the source and receiver can both dislike something and at the same time like each other, so they experience comfort and balance.
Second, the source and receiver can have a positive attitude toward an object/idea and display positive feelings toward one another, therefore experiencing comfort and balance.
Third, the source and the receiver can disagree about an idea/object and also dislike each other, therefore experiencing comfort because they know that they disagree about the values of certain objects/ideas.
So, when two attitudes collide we must strive to strike a balance between the two attitudes. The balance varies depending on the intensity we feel about each attitude and our pre-disposed positions concerning the attitude. We either have a favourable, neutral or unfavourable opinion concerning ideas. When two attitudes collide we attempt to downgrade the favourable position and upgrade the unfavourable position so that we feel a balance.
For example, a girl likes Sachin Tendulkar (the Indian cricketing superstar) and football. However, Tendulkar does not like football.
Therefore, this system is in imbalance. To balance the system, one of three things would happen. The girl would have to:
i) downgrade her opinion of Tendulkar
ii) downgrade her opinion of football
iii) downgrade both
Balance theory presents analytic consistency in that the theoretical assumptions fit together. The method of investigation in this theory is timely. The theory is practical, and can be heuristically applied in other fields.
Read more on this...
Saturday, May 07, 2005
Wednesday, May 04, 2005
Flash It!
Hey Guys!
Some Gr8 Macromedia Flash stuff. You absolutely MUST try these out
This one's cool. Check out the human animations.
Simply superb collection of Flash animations. Try out the 5-star rated ones. There'll be the best. The others are cool too! A must visit!
Todd Gallina is a past master at creating Flash based animations. He was the creator of 'Big Foot', the animated series. Lots of other small Flash snippets on this site too.
Some really fantastic stuff!
A few good Flash animations, but check out the Illusions link too..
Click 'enter tokyoplastic' to view
Great animations. Very episodic. Some heavy stuff!
Some cool parodies & satires in Flash
Enzoy! Catch ya later....
Some Gr8 Macromedia Flash stuff. You absolutely MUST try these out
This one's cool. Check out the human animations.
Simply superb collection of Flash animations. Try out the 5-star rated ones. There'll be the best. The others are cool too! A must visit!
Todd Gallina is a past master at creating Flash based animations. He was the creator of 'Big Foot', the animated series. Lots of other small Flash snippets on this site too.
Some really fantastic stuff!
A few good Flash animations, but check out the Illusions link too..
Click 'enter tokyoplastic' to view
Great animations. Very episodic. Some heavy stuff!
Some cool parodies & satires in Flash
Enzoy! Catch ya later....
Tuesday, May 03, 2005
McGregor's X and Y Theory: A Brief Critique
In his book “The Human Side of Enterprise” (1960), Douglas McGregor studied behavior patterns of individuals in the workplace, and formulated the X and Y theory.
Theory X:
Theory X suggests that individual's have an instilled dislike for work and try to avoid it. Thus, all workers dislike work, try to avoid work, are born inherently lazy, must be constantly dominated into doing a honest day’s work and only turn up to work to collect their pay. This means that employees must be controlled by threat in order to perform. Such an employee prefers to be directed, avoids responsibility, is explicit, and prefers security above all else.
Criticism: These assumptions of the Theory X employee may lead to various problems, such as a tough management (that believes in punishment and tight controls) and a soft management (who strives for harmony in the workplace, at the xepense of efficiency). It does not make allowance for employees who need a feeling of self-fulfillment. Theory X managers also expect employees to behave in an expected, predictable fashion.
Theory Y:
Theory Y assumes that employees basically like to work and view work as something rather natural; moreover the worker views this as a potentially enjoyable and positive experience. It propounds that there are ways to make individuals perform other than through control and punishment. If the employee is committed to the mission of the department s/he will become a self directed employee. Job satisfaction means commitment to the department and its mission. Under the proper conditions, the employee will learn and lead in to acceptance of responsibility. Many employees by the use of creativity, imagination and ingenuity, can solve problems - no matter how big or small.
Criticism: Theory Y may be hard to utilize where there are a large number of employees, but can be utilized on the departmental/divisional managers of an organization. This theory also effects the management of promotions, salaries, and development of effective managers.
Some of McGregor’s theories are unrealizable in practice, but the basic assumption can be adhered to, and put into operation.
More later...
Monday, May 02, 2005
Social Learning
The social learning theory of Albert Bandura emphasizes the importance of observing and modeling the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others.
Social learning theory explains human behavior in terms of continuous reciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioral, and environmental influences.
Process:
The component processes underlying observational learning are:
(1) Attention, including modeled events (distinctiveness, affective valence, complexity, prevalence, functional value) and observer characteristics (sensory capacities, arousal level, perceptual set, past reinforcement)
(2) Retention, including symbolic coding, cognitive organization, symbolic rehearsal, motor rehearsal)
(3) Motor Reproduction, including physical capabilities, self-observation of reproduction, accuracy of feedback, and
(4) Motivation, including external, vicarious and self reinforcement.
Principles:
1. The highest level of observational learning is achieved by first organizing and rehearsing the modeled behavior symbolically and then enacting it overtly. Codifying model behavior into words, labels or images can result in better retention than simply observing.
2. Individuals are more likely to adopt a modeled behavior if it results in outcomes they value.
3. Individuals are more likely to adopt a modeled behavior if the model is similar to the observer and has admired status and the behavior has functional value.
Example:
In the on-the-job training setting, a supervisor either explicitly or implicitly shows a new employee a physical task to be replicated for the employee's job performance. Often this physical performance may be quite foreign to the new employee. However, in most cases after a few attempts on the employee's part they are able to complete the task by envisioning the symbolic codes they developed consciously or unconsciously of the earlier observed model performance.
Inference:
In a workplace setting, social learning can be a powerful force to train employees, yet employees can also use social learning to adopt behaviors that may be less than desirable from the employer's perspective. These behaviors could be learned from co-workers who may be admired by the employee but less admired by company management.
Social learning theory explains human behavior in terms of continuous reciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioral, and environmental influences.
Process:
The component processes underlying observational learning are:
(1) Attention, including modeled events (distinctiveness, affective valence, complexity, prevalence, functional value) and observer characteristics (sensory capacities, arousal level, perceptual set, past reinforcement)
(2) Retention, including symbolic coding, cognitive organization, symbolic rehearsal, motor rehearsal)
(3) Motor Reproduction, including physical capabilities, self-observation of reproduction, accuracy of feedback, and
(4) Motivation, including external, vicarious and self reinforcement.
Principles:
1. The highest level of observational learning is achieved by first organizing and rehearsing the modeled behavior symbolically and then enacting it overtly. Codifying model behavior into words, labels or images can result in better retention than simply observing.
2. Individuals are more likely to adopt a modeled behavior if it results in outcomes they value.
3. Individuals are more likely to adopt a modeled behavior if the model is similar to the observer and has admired status and the behavior has functional value.
Example:
In the on-the-job training setting, a supervisor either explicitly or implicitly shows a new employee a physical task to be replicated for the employee's job performance. Often this physical performance may be quite foreign to the new employee. However, in most cases after a few attempts on the employee's part they are able to complete the task by envisioning the symbolic codes they developed consciously or unconsciously of the earlier observed model performance.
Inference:
In a workplace setting, social learning can be a powerful force to train employees, yet employees can also use social learning to adopt behaviors that may be less than desirable from the employer's perspective. These behaviors could be learned from co-workers who may be admired by the employee but less admired by company management.
Andragogy and Pedagogy
"Pedagogy" literally means "leading children". Pedagogy refers to the art and science of educating children, and is often used as a synonym for teaching.
"Andragogy" was a term coined to refer to the art/science of teaching adults. Andragogy derives from the Greek words "anere" (adult) and "agogus" (the art and science of helping students learn).
Initially defined as, "the art and science of helping adults learn," andragogy has come to be understood as an alternative to pedagogy; a learner-focused approach for people of all ages.
Malcolm Knowles—often referred to as "father of adult learning"—and others theorized that methods used to teach children are often not the most effective means of teaching adults. In The Modern Practice of Adult Education (1970), Knowles defined andragogy as "an emerging technology for adult learning". His four andragogical assumptions were that adults:
1) move from dependency to self-directedness;
2) draw upon their reservoir of experience for learning;
3) are ready to learn when they assume new roles; and
4) want to solve problems and apply new knowledge immediately.
Based on these assumptions, the andragogic model asks that five issues be considered and addressed in formal learning:
• The need to know — letting learners know why something is important to learn.
• The need to be self directing — showing learners how to direct themselves through information.
• Greater volume and quality of experience — relating the topic to the learner's experiences.
• Readiness to learn — people will not learn until ready and motivated to learn.
• A need to have a life centered, task centered, or problem centered orientation - helping learners overcome inhibitions, behaviors, and beliefs about learning.
Whereas in pedagogy, development is based upon a content plan, in andragogy, development is based upon a process design.
In short, pedagogy embodies teacher-focused education. Andragogy has taken on a broader meaning and refers to learner-focused education for people of all ages.
"Andragogy" was a term coined to refer to the art/science of teaching adults. Andragogy derives from the Greek words "anere" (adult) and "agogus" (the art and science of helping students learn).
Initially defined as, "the art and science of helping adults learn," andragogy has come to be understood as an alternative to pedagogy; a learner-focused approach for people of all ages.
Malcolm Knowles—often referred to as "father of adult learning"—and others theorized that methods used to teach children are often not the most effective means of teaching adults. In The Modern Practice of Adult Education (1970), Knowles defined andragogy as "an emerging technology for adult learning". His four andragogical assumptions were that adults:
1) move from dependency to self-directedness;
2) draw upon their reservoir of experience for learning;
3) are ready to learn when they assume new roles; and
4) want to solve problems and apply new knowledge immediately.
Based on these assumptions, the andragogic model asks that five issues be considered and addressed in formal learning:
• The need to know — letting learners know why something is important to learn.
• The need to be self directing — showing learners how to direct themselves through information.
• Greater volume and quality of experience — relating the topic to the learner's experiences.
• Readiness to learn — people will not learn until ready and motivated to learn.
• A need to have a life centered, task centered, or problem centered orientation - helping learners overcome inhibitions, behaviors, and beliefs about learning.
Whereas in pedagogy, development is based upon a content plan, in andragogy, development is based upon a process design.
In short, pedagogy embodies teacher-focused education. Andragogy has taken on a broader meaning and refers to learner-focused education for people of all ages.
Effective Training Methods: Does "One Size Fit All"?
Effective training programs are designed using a variety of teaching methods to address the different learning styles of the participants and to meet the learningobjectives and results expected from the training. Some teaching methods focus on increasing knowledge, others on skill development and practice, and others help modify or change attitudes. No method is right in all situations,and variety is always important to build into a training program to maintain interest and enthusiasm.
The choice of the training method to be adopted for a course or program is therefore a matter of experience, competence, and judgment of the trainer/designer.
Let me illustrate with an example. I am employed with an e-learning company, and my choice for pursuing a particular training methodology would depend on factors which assist the client in optimizing learning to obtain the best results for specific audiences, content, available technology and organizational structures.
To do this, I—an instructional designer—would consider specific learning method/s aimed at one or more of these benefits:
The choice of the training method to be adopted for a course or program is therefore a matter of experience, competence, and judgment of the trainer/designer.
Let me illustrate with an example. I am employed with an e-learning company, and my choice for pursuing a particular training methodology would depend on factors which assist the client in optimizing learning to obtain the best results for specific audiences, content, available technology and organizational structures.
To do this, I—an instructional designer—would consider specific learning method/s aimed at one or more of these benefits:
- Access: Making training more available to learners’ entry behaviour, learning styles, social and cultural environment, and learning levels.
- Costs: Reducing implementation, up gradation and other continuous training costs.
- Content: Increasing the scope of offerings.
- Reinvention: Reengineering how training happens, innovative methods.
- Relevance: Making training more meaningful to people’s work, with better transfer of learning.
- Speed: Responding to constant change and rapid product innovations, making the training content and method flexible to change.
- Efficiency: Avoiding the normal scheduling of classroom training.
- Empowerment: Putting the responsibility for learning in the hands of learners.
- Convenience: Letting time-pressured students learn at the best time and place.
The choice of teaching methods I choose may also depend on factors like:
- Budget for training
- Media and material available/suitable
- Training focus area and the availability of subject matter experts (SMEs)
- Enabling and terminal objectives of training
- Length of course or program, and
- Time available to develop and deliver the course
More on this later.... Ciao !
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